СТАТЬИ

Considering the importance of the topos of the Crusades for the Arab discourses of the 19th - 21st centuries and its influence on the collective memory in modern Arab countries, the challenge of finding the roots of this phenomenon is of vital importance. This problem can be solved only through the analyses of the memory of the Crusades in Arab culture from the late 13th to the beginning of the 19th centuries. Proceeding from this, it seems relevant to study the preservation of the memory of the Crusades in one of the most important types of works of Arabic literature, Arabic Folk Epics. The analysis of the image of the Franks in this kind of sources shows that during the era of the Crusades itself and in the subsequent centuries a huge number of the Arab tribal pre-Islamic narratives and passages about the struggle against Byzantium were transformed into the ones dedicated to Jihad against the Franks. Thus, first the Crusades reshaped this kind of narratives, and then the Arab tradition itself began to support and reproduce the image of the Christian-European-Crusader in the collective memory in Egypt and Levant due to the high popularity of the Folk Epics, which might have created a horizon of expectation for the perception of the European colonial policy of the 19th-20th centuries, i.e. “the return of the Crusaders”.

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INTRODUCTION
From all the phenomena of the Middle Eastern history the Crusades remain one of the most often cited epochs addressed in media and one of the most popular fields of research. As Carole Hillenbrand notes, the likening of the modern Europeans with the Crusaders has been typical of the Arab political and religious leaders as well as cultural figures since the middle of the 20th century [Hillenbrand, 1999, p. 590]. Moreover, the recent studies show, that the Arab socio-political and cultural discourses of the second half of the 19th century also contained a significant number of references to the theme of the Crusades, and representatives of all major branches of the Arab social thought (Pan-Islamism, Pan-Ottomanism and Pan-Arabism) appealed to this era [Phillips, 2018; Phillips, 2020; Tikhonova, Sokolov, 2021; Sokolov, 2022].
Thus, given the importance of the topos of the Crusades for the Arab politics and culture of the 19th – 21st centuries and its role in the formation of identities within the imaginary communities (national and religious) existing in modern Arab countries, the problem of finding the roots of this phenomenon seems to be extremely relevant. The solving of this research question is related primarily to the study of the functioning of the memory of the Crusades in Arab culture from the late 14th to the early 19th century.
In modern historiography, there are two points of view on how the memory of the Crusades was being preserved among the Arabs until the 19th century. According to the first viewpoint, the European invasion was almost forgotten. The main arguments in support of this are the absence of the word “Crusader” (ar. ṣalībī) in the Arabic language until the 19th century and the fact that Arab authors did not create specialized works on the history of the Crusades before that time. This point of view is shared, for example, by Hannes Mohring [Mohring, 2008, p. 101], Bernard Lewis [Lewis, 2003, pp. 50-51] and Jonathan Riley-Smith [Riley-Smith, 2008, p. 64].
According to another point of view, it is impossible to make an unequivocal conclusion that the Arabs did not preserve the memory of the Crusades. Haim Gerber argues that, “the Crusades left a deep and lasting trace of fear in the collective mind of the Arab population of Palestine, and will forever remain in their memory” [Gerber, 2008, p. 44]. According to Jonathan Phillips, “we should not underestimate the transmission of the memory of the Crusades through popular culture, which is a subject worthy of further research” [Phillips, 2008, p. 5].
Based on this, it seems relevant to study the preservation of the memory of the Crusades in the late Middle Ages and the New Age in the so-called Arabic Folk Epics.
The Arabic Folk Epic is a fusion of an ancient Arabian tribal Folklore, legends and fairy tales of ancient Semitic, Persian and Indian origin, historical chronicles and Muslim hagiographic literature. For the most part, the Folk Epics emerged during the era of the Crusades as well as the Mamluk period. During the reign of the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East and North Africa in the 16th – 19th centuries, works of this genre were extremely popular, as they were performed by professional storytellers in the streets, bazaars and coffee houses [Krymskij, 1971, p. 48]. The wide popularity of Folk Epics in the Arab society of Ottoman times is reported by many travelers and researchers: Dominique-Vivant Denon (1747 – 1825), Antoine-Barthélemy Clot-Bey (1793-1868) and Edward Lane (1801-1876). It is important to note that Epics were known and loved by urban and rural population along with the Bedouins [Krymskij, 1971, pp. 49-52].
The issue of preserving of the Crusades memory in the Arabic Folk Epic, however, has not previously become the topic of the complex research. In the only article directly related to the topic under consideration, “The Crusading Stratum in the Arabic Hero Cycles”, its author Malcolm Lyons lists examples of references to the Crusades in the Arabic Epics without considering the patterns of preserving the memory of this phenomenon, and also without examining such an important aspect as the influence of the Crusader topos in the Folk Epics on the image of the Europeans in the Arab culture. At the same time, Lyons notes that the study of the image of the Crusades in the Arabic Folk Epic is extremely important and ambitious [Lyons, 1993, pp. 147-161].
Arabic Folk Epics are not considered as sources in the studies of the Arab memory of the Crusades: Carol Hillenbrand [Hillenbrand, 1999] and Jonathan Phillips [Phillips, 2008] mention only the potential relevance of studying these works in this course. Omar Sayfo in his article on the image of Salah al-Din in popular Arab culture starts his analysis only from the 19th century, ignoring the episodes with this character in popular culture of the 14th – 18th centuries [Sayfo, 2017]. Paul Cobb in his study of Islamic perceptions of the Crusades mentions only the glorification of Baybars in the eponymous Epic [Cobb, 2016].
Researchers who studied the Arabic Folk Epic from the point of view of history and ethnography also did not analyze the memory of the Crusades in this type of sources. Bridget Connelly’s monograph Arab Folk Epic and identity examines only the influence of the Epic Sīrat banī hilāl on the identity of the Egyptians, and the references to the Crusades in the Epic are only mentioned in passing [Connelly, 1986]. The comprehensive selection of articles Lectures du Roman de Baybars also does not focus on the aspects of the historical memory of this epoch [Garcin, 2003]. Ana Vidal-Luengo’s article mentions only the symbolic importance of the alliance of Baybars with the Ismailis against the Crusaders in the Folk Epic [Luengo, 2003].
Literary studies of the Arabic Folk Epic, such as Peter Heath’s The Thirsty Sword: Sirat Antar and the Arabic Popular Epic, briefly mention the references to the Crusades without comparing them to the broader context of the memory of this era. The studies of Ahafanhel Krimskiy [Krimskiy, 1971], Nimatullah Ibraghimov [Ibraghimov, 1984] and Isaac Filshtinskiy [Filshtinskiy, 2010] are also focused on the analysis of the language and composition of the Epics, and although they do mention episodes that are undoubtedly related to the Crusades, they do not analyze them from the point of view of the history of ideas and historical memory.
Works on the image of the Europeans in the Arab culture of the late Middle Ages and the New Age also neglect Folk Epics. The same can be said about the studies on the history of Jihad and works of the Christian-Muslim confrontation in the Mediterranean. Fundamental studies of Arab historical memory and identity, such as the works of Peter Webb [Webb, 2017] and Peter Wien [Wien, 2017] also bypass this type of sources.
Thus, it is no exaggeration to say that there is a large room for the analysis of the Crusader topos in Arabic Folk Epic. On this basis, my article aims to analyze the patterns of depicting the Crusaders and the Crusades in the Arabic Folk Epic, as well as to identify the typological characteristics of their images. This will allow us to answer the question how the Crusades were imprinted in one of the most important types of works of Arabic Folklore, which is crucial in the context of studying the formation of the image of the Europeans in Arab culture. This study is supposed to become a step towards the continuation of Carol Hillenbrand’s work [Hillenbrand, 1999] dedicated to the analysis of the Muslim view of the Crusades in the Middle Ages. The Methodology of the article is based on discourse analysis and analysis of the image of the Other.
The following popular Arabic Folk Epics are considered as sources in this article¹.

Sīrat ‘antara ibn šaddād (Life of ‘Antara Ibn Shaddad) is an Epic about the pre-Islamic warrior-poet ‘Antara Ibn Shaddad, a hero of the Arabian tribal wars and the author of the famous qasida’s. According to the plot of the Epic, the hero travels throughout the Mediterranean and visits European lands (bilād al-ifranj).
Qiṣṣat al-zīr sālim (Story of al-Zir Salim) is an Epic about the pre-Islamic warrior poet al-Zir Salim (real name ‘Adi bin Rabi‘a), nicknamed al-Muhalhil (“the one who perfectly composes poetry”). The Epic mainly focuses on the hero's adventures during Arab tribal conflicts. Historically, al-Muhalhil was the leader of the Banu Taglib in the famous Basus War. He is also considered the legendary ancestor of Banu Hilal.
Sīrat banī hilāl (Life of the Banu Hilal tribe) is an Epic about the migration of the Arab tribe Banu Hilal from Najd to Tunisia and Algeria through Egypt.
Sīrat ḏāt al-himma (Life of Dhat al-Himma) is an Epic, the main character of which is the Arab female warrior Fatima, nicknamed Dhat al-Himma (“the one who possesses energy”). The Epic is dedicated to the military struggle on Byzantine/Arab frontier in the Abbasid period.
Sīrat sayf ibn ḏī yazan (Life of Sayf Ibn Dhi Yazan) is an Epic, the main character of which is Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan (516-587), king of Himyar (modern Yemen). The plot of the Epic is built around confronting the threat from Christian Ethiopia.
Sīrat al-ẓāhir baybars (Life of al-Zahir Baybars) is an Epic about the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt, al-Zahir Baybars (1223-1277). The work describes the wars with the Crusaders and other enemies, as well as the struggle of the Sultan with the unjust officials. From all the main characters of the Folk Epics, Baybars is the only contemporary and a real participant in the wars against the Crusaders.
As the researchers of the Arabic Folk Epics unanimously note, all six of the abovementioned works were extremely popular in the Middle East in the Middle Ages and the New Age, and remain popular in the 21st century².

In the course of analyzing the Crusader topos in the Arabic Folk Epic, the following patterns of depicting the Crusades and the Crusaders were identified.
THE PATTERN OF THE ETERNAL WAR AGAINST THE EUROPEAN CHRISTIANS
The functioning of this pattern is crucial, first of all, in Epics, the main characters of which are ancient pre-Islamic heroes, who, according to the plot, selflessly fight against the Franks and embody the ideal of a fighter for the true religion (ar. mujāhid). The most illustrative examples of this are found in the adventures of ‘Antara ibn Shaddad (Sīrat ‘antara ibn šaddād), al-Zir Salim (Qiṣṣat al-zīr sālim) and Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan (Sīrat sayf ibn ḏī yazan).
Throughout the most complete set of ‘Antara adventures, the protagonist faces the Franks. He travels for 20 years in the lands of the Franks and in the Northern Seas. One of the children of ‘Antara turns out to be a Frankish commander Jawfaran (Godefroi³), who besieges Damascus. ‘Antara challenges Jawfaran to a duel, beats him and is about to kill, but it turns out⁴ that Jawfaran is his son from the Frankish princess Mariam (Mary) [Sīrat ‘antara, Vol. 2, pp. 378-379]. ‘Antara fights the Franks at sea and on land, in Sham, Hijaz, Iraq and other regions of the Middle East. The Epic is replete with the descriptions of battles like the following: “A five-day battle began with fifty thousand francs marching under countless banners and crosses in the lands of Sham” [Sīrat ‘antara, Vol. 4, p. 209]. It is important to note that after the death of ‘Antara, his descendants convert to Islam and participate in Jihad against Christians [Filshtinskiy, 2010, p. 605].

The episodes of the confrontations with the Crusaders in the Epic Qiṣṣat al-zīr sālim are of a great interest. The main character, al-Muhalhil, in one of the Bedouin scrimmages falls in a drunken state into the hands of enemies, who kill him, chopping him into pieces. The hero's sister puts his body into a magic chest, which she lowers into the sea⁵. The chest is fished by Beirut fishermen, and the doctor of Hakmun, the ruler of Beirut, revives and heals the hero. For insolence in conversation, the ruler, however, then throws al-Muhalhil in prison [Qiṣṣat al-zīr sа̄lim, p. 71-77]. Right after that, the city is attacked: “In those days Jupiter the Crusader (ar. birgīs al-ṣalībī), one of the kings of the Byzantines⁶, arrived and with him his brother and a hundred thousand army, they came from Kasarwan⁷ to fight the ruler Hakmun” [Qiṣṣat al-zīr sа̄lim, p. 78]. The siege of the city begins, during which al-Muhalhil escapes from prison twice to help the defenders, seeing that Hakmun frees him, and al-Muhalhil participates in a ten-day battle under the walls of the city. He kills Jupiter’s brother and many Christian warriors, after which the Christian commander makes peace with Hakmun and retreats [Qiṣṣat al-zīr sа̄lim, p. 79-81].

In this episode, it is important that the campaign described is undoubtedly a projection of the events of the era of the Crusades, while it is worth mentioning that the inhabitants of the city in the Epic are Jews. This could be explained by the fact that the action of the Epic takes place in pre-Islamic times, and al-Muhalhil, being a monotheist, could not, according to the logic of medieval Muslims, help pagans against the “people of scripture” - Christians, respectively, the inhabitants of the city are declared representatives of another Abrahamic religion. When the ruler asks the hero what is his name, al-Muhalhil, as he does not want to reveal his real name, answers: “My name is Monotheist (ar. muwaḥḥid), servant of the Great God (ar. al-ilа̄h al-‘aẓīm), Lord of Musa and Ibrahim⁸”[Qiṣṣat al-zīr sа̄lim, p. 76]. In this case, it is important that the monotheist hero bravely confronts the Christian invaders.

This episode also demonstrates a synthesis of the Bedouin pre-Islamic narrative and the medieval realities of Jihad against the invading Crusaders: drunk al-Muhalhil is ambushed by enemies during an inter-tribal Arabian strife, and immediately after this he turns into a mujahid hero at the forefront of the fight against the advancing armies of the Crusaders.
The case of another pre-Islamic hero, Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan, in turn, is a typical example of the divine predestination of the hero to fight the infidel invaders: even before his birth he is called the “destroyer of the pagans” and “the conqueror of the infidels” [Fа̄ris al-yaman, Vol. 1]. This circumstance, along with other examples, clearly illustrates the fact that the fight against infidels is the main pivot of the Epic. Similar episodes with prophecies about the birth of the protagonists, who will subsequently fight the infidels, are inherent in many Arabic Folk Epics. For example, in Sīrat al-ẓāhir baybars there is also a prophecy about the birth of the main hero, which reads as follows: “And an Arab ruler will appear who will build madrasahs and turn churches into mosques” [Sīrat al-ẓāhir baybars]. In the Epics Sīrat sayf ibn ḏī yazan, Sīrat al-ẓāhir baybars and Sīrat al-amīr ḥamza al-bahlawа̄n the birth of future Mujahideen heroes is foretold by the prophet Khidr [Ibragimov 1984, p. 162]. At the same time, there are also cases of unity of Muslims under the leadership of an epic hero. Baybars, for example, unites the Bedouins and Ismailis against the Crusaders under his banner [Luengo, 2003].
It is important to emphasize that the Arabic Folk Epics create the image of the Western Christians attacking the Middle East even before Islam, and monotheistic heroes - “predecessors of Muslims” – fighting and repelling them.
In the author's text of the Epics (in the words of the narrator⁹) the statement that “the Franks are plotting an attack” is often repeated, and Arab hero - ideal Mujahid, whose main mission in life is fighting against infidels - rises up to repulse it. Thus, it is safe to say that the Crusades created a demand for a Mujahid character in Arab Folk culture in 12th-13th centuries, and the images of the pre-Islamic heroes were thus reshaped and reimagined for the new realities.

THE PATTERN OF A UNANIMOUS GATHERING OF EUROPEANS TO ATTACK THE MUSLIM WORLD
Christian aggressors arriving in the Middle East in the Epics, both Byzantines and Franks, bear European names: Bimūnd (Bohemund) - the Frankish commander in Sīrat ḏāt al-himma, Bardwīl (Baudouin, Baldwin) - the ruler of al-Arish in Sīrat banī hilāl, Jawfaran (Godefroi, Godfrey) - Frankish commander, son of ‘Antara in Sīrat ‘antara ibn šaddād, Juwān (John) - the main antagonist of Sīrat al-ẓāhir baybars, Lawūn (Leon) - the Byzantine emperor in Sīrat ‘antara ibn šaddād, etc., as well as symbolic names such as ‘Abd al-Ṣalīb (“slave of the cross”, grandfather of the main antagonist in Sīrat al-ẓāhir baybars), Bīrjis al-Ṣalībī (Jupiter the Crusader, one of the antagonists in Qiṣṣat al-zīr sālim). In some cases, the Crusader images can be seen even in the figures of Zoroastrians. An illustrative example of such transfer can be found in the third cycle of Sīrat banī hilāl - Taghribat Banī Hilāl (Way to the West of the Banu Hilal tribe). On their way to Egypt the tribesmen encounter Bardwīl, the ruler of El-Arish, a fire-worshiper. The main character of Sīrat banī hilāl Abū Zayd goes to a duel with Bardwīl and defeats him [Taġribat banī hilа̄l, pp. 93-94]. It is assumed that Bardwīl’s character is based on the personality of the king of Jerusalem Baldwin I (1100-1118)¹⁰.

In Arabic Folk Epics, many Frankish lands are mentioned: Portugal, Barcelona, Rome, England, etc., while it is noted that all these are the lands of enemies [Lyons, 1993, pp. 147-161]. In various Epics, the Franks also control and besiege many cities in the Middle East.
An important recurring image in the Arabic Folk Epics is the gathering of Frankish kings to seize the territories of the Middle East or to attack Muslims or Muslim sacred space.
In Sīrat ‘antara ibn šaddād, the ambassadors of the Franks arrive in Constantinople with crosses on their chests, and the Franks advance to fight for Jerusalem. Then, a large army of Franks spreads Christianity in the Middle East by the sword and threatens Damascus, Hijaz and Kufa [Sīrat ‘antara ibn šaddа̄d, Vol. 4, pp. 212-215]. In the same Epic, the united fleet of Franks sails to the Middle East in order to restore the empire of Alexander the Great. The Muslim Middle East is also attacked by the Franks throughout the Epics Sīrat ḏāt al-himma and Sīrat al-ẓāhir baybars. In Sīrat ḏāt al-himma it is often emphasized that all Franks, without exception, are campaigning against Muslims: “And when the Giant [ar. ‘imlāq, nickname of the king of the Franks] received an answer, he left only women in the country of the Franks, and set forward by land with a hundred thousand horsemen, accompanied by six hundred ships at sea full of warriors, and he ordered the captains to attack all the Muslim ships” [Sīrat ḏа̄t al-himma, Vol. 1, p. 395]. The Franks in Arabic Folk Epics are also presented as enemies who come from afar [Lyons, 1993, pp. 147-161].
In Sīrat ‘antara ibn šaddād, the Franks regularly appear as allies of the Byzantines. Addressing the Christians of the Middle East, the Byzantine emperor says the following: “I inform you that they [Franks] are going to advance to the lands of Hijaz. Ships arrived, and there are more of them than the number of stars and planets in the sky, and they carry troops from different nations, all of them are from the Franks-conquerors (ar. ṭawа̄’if muḫtalifat al-ajnа̄s min ġuzа̄t al-ifranj), and they are more than two hundred thousand [...], and they set out for the victory of those who worship the cross" [Sīrat ‘antara ibn šaddа̄d, Vol. 4, p. 202]. In Sīrat ḏāt al-himma the Byzantine emperor Armanus fights for the throne with his son Bimūnd, and the armies of Franks and Arab tribes also take part in this fight. In another episode of the same Epic, the “patriarchs and kings of the Franks” gather around the bed of the sick Byzantine emperor [Sīrat ḏа̄t al-himma, Vol. 1, p. 906].
Gathering Franks are also going to forcibly convert the inhabitants of the Middle East to Christianity. ‘Uqba, the main antagonist of Sīrat ḏāt al-himma, calls for help from the Byzantine emperor, promising that “bells will ring in all lands of Islam” [Ibragimov 1984: 108-109]. Subsequently, an army of Christians led by eighteen kings tries to save ‘Uqba. In Qiṣṣat al-zīr sālim, the inhabitants of Beirut are afraid of the power of Christian kings and are happy about peace with the Crusaders. Jupiter the Crusader is called “one of the kings” of the Byzantines, which indicates the multiplicity of the Christian enemies [Qiṣṣat al-zīr sа̄lim, p. 78]. In the same Epic inhabitants of the city are very happy about a peace agreement “fearing the might of the Christian kings” [Qiṣṣat al-zīr sа̄lim, p. 81].
The abovementioned episodes demonstrate the anticipation of the arrival of large united armies of Christians from ‘Frankish lands’ by the inhabitants of the Medieval Middle East.
THE PATTERN OF THE RIGHTEOUS DEFENSIVE WAR AGAINST THE EUROPEANS
In Sīrat ḏāt al-himma, ‘Uqba says that, “as many Muslims as possible must be converted to Christianity”, and “Christians must wage Holy War against Muslims” [Sīrat ḏāt al-himma]. Such passages are typical of Arabic Folk Epics in general, and can be reduced to one idea - the attribution of the doctrine of holy war to Christianity. Bohemond, leading an army of Franks in Sīrat ḏāt al-himma, proclaims that he wants to seize Muslim lands. In the same Epic, the Frankish ambassador introduces his King the Giant, who is going on a campaign against Muslims, as the viceroy of Jesus Christ over all Christians [Sīrat ḏāt al-himma, Vol. 1, p. 396]. In Sīrat ‘antara ibn šaddād there is also a detailed description of the army of Crusaders arriving to the Middle East: “And the king of the Franks Ḫīljān came, and he is like Shaitan or a demon, [...] he conquered the kings of different countries and conquered the islands in the seas, and made many worship the Gospel. And he set out to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem (ar. bayt al-maqdis). [...] And he sent a messenger to the Khosroi with the words: «Get out of these lands, and if you are afraid of our arrival, then worship Isa the son of Mary, and destroy the temples of fire, and build churches in their places»” [Sīrat ‘antara ibn šaddа̄d, Vol. 4, p. 211.]. The king of the Franks in Sīrat ḏāt al-himma is also called “the enemy of Allah” [Sīrat ḏāt al-himma, Vol. 1, p. 855].
There are many references to the theme of the Jihad in Sīrat al-ẓāhir baybars, the Epic actively creates a negative image of Christians and emphasizes the just nature of the holy war against them. This circumstance is vividly illustrated, for example, by the episode of the confrontation between Baybars and a Crusader-pirate who threatens the trade on the coasts of Sham and Egypt [Sīrat al-ẓāhir baybars]. The Epic also describes in detail the process of recapturing of the coastal line of Sham from the Crusaders: Baybars expels the Franks from al-Arish, Ascalon, Antioch, Tripoli and other cities and castles [Sīrat al-ẓāhir baybars].
Christians in Epics are in most cases presented as enemies, invaders and robbers, for example in Qiṣṣat al-zīr sālim [Qiṣṣat al-zīr sālim, p. 78-81], they are focused on capturing territories and collecting tribute from the vanquished. In Sīrat ‘antara ibn šaddād there are many passages stating that “there was no peace for the Arabs, and the Byzantines again marched to war against them and the Franks set out on a campaign” [Sīrat ‘antara ibn šaddād, Vol. 8, p. 2].
The Franks are always explicitly portrayed as villains, even when they are fighting not against Muslims, but against Jews, Persians or Byzantines. Al-Muhalhil helps the Jews against the Crusaders, and in Sīrat ‘antara ibn šaddād Arabs help Persians-fire-worshipers against the Franks, ‘Antara also personally fights on the side of the Byzantines against the Franks, including the naval battles [Sīrat ‘antara ibn šaddād, Vol. 7, p. 351]. Thus, the Franks are drawn as an alien aggressive element in the Middle East.
The plot about the Frankish threat to the Muslim sacred space, primarily Mecca, is also very widespread. In Sīrat ḏāt al-himma the Frankish ruler Milas has a dream that he must recapture Jerusalem. At the beginning of the Hilali cycle, the Byzantines set out on a campaign to Mecca. It is also important that ‘Abd al-Wahhāb, the protagonist of the Hilali cycle, is given a nickname “protector of the Prophet's grave” [Lyons, 1993, pp. 147-161]. Mecca is also attacked by Christians in Sīrat ‘antara ibn šaddād.
CONCLUSIONS
Summing up the analysis of the image of the Franks in the Arabic Folk Epics, it is important to emphasize that although they are depicted stereotypically, the passages about the Franks are important not for their pictorial side, but because they are found in almost all Epics, dedicated both to pre-Islamic and Medieval heroes. Thus, it is important not how the Franks are depicted, but the very fact of their ubiquitous presence. The European-Crusader became the main enemy in this kind of narratives, although initially they were devoted to the inter-tribal wars of pre-Islamic Arabia, the struggle against the Ethiopians and Byzantines, and other episodes of pre-Islamic and early Islamic history. The pre-Islamic heroes were reimagined to become Mujahideen - fighters against the Crusaders. All of this made the struggle with the Franks in the Folk Epic look eternal and principal.
It is important to emphasize that as the texts of the Arabic Folk Epics were emerging during the Crusades, it was these events that made Epics a focal point for preserving the memory of Europeans as enemies. Therefore, first the events of the Crusades were depicted in the Arab tradition, and then the tradition itself began to support and reproduce the image of the Christian-European-Enemy-Other due to the popularity and wide spread of the Folk Epics.
The analysis of the image of the Crusaders in the Arabic Folk Epics is, in fact, an analysis of the image of the European Christians in this key type of works of the Arab Folk culture of the Middle Ages and Modern Times, since the study of the above contexts allows us to put an equal sign within the term “Frank” between the concepts of European and Crusader (coming from the West, from far across the sea, a Christian invader, speaking “Frankish language”). The main conflict of Folk Epics is Islam-Christianity and Islam-Polytheism, which makes the Jihad the main motivation of the protagonists (“defense of the faith of Muhammad and the lands of Islam”). At the same time the Epics almost never mention Arab or Muslim conquests, concentrating on the defense against Christians (Byzantines, Ethiopians and Franks).
Based on the foregoing, it can be assumed with confidence that although it is believed that almost after the end of the Crusades they were forgotten by the Arabs, and the inhabitants of Egypt and the Levant in the New Age of the century practically did not know who the Europeans were, since they did not interact with them, the Folk Epics material shows that the image of the European-Crusader in the Late Middle Ages and Early Modern Period was remembered and reproduced due to the enormous popularity of these works. Furthermore, after the end of the era of the Crusades, the maintaining of the image of the Crusader-Frank-Christian in the Arab collective memory by Arabic Folk Epics, created a horizon of expectation for the perception of the European colonial policy of the 19th-20th centuries, i.e. “the return of the Crusaders”, which is important for the genesis of the image of the Europeans in the Arab collective memory and the formation of the Arab identities.
It should also be noted that the Mongols, who destroyed the Abbasid Caliphate in 1258 and threatened other regions of the Middle East, being a more terrible military threat, unlike the Franks, are practically not mentioned in the Arabic Folk Epic (they appear almost only in Sīrat al-ẓāhir baybars). This circumstance again actualizes the question of the importance of the memory of the Crusades in Arab culture.